Caves of Aggtelek Karst and Slovak Karst, Hungary and Slovakia

The variety of formations and the fact that they are concentrated in a restricted area means that the 712 caves currently identified make up a typical temperate-zone karstic system. Because they display an extremely rare combination of tropical and glacial climatic effects, they make it possible to study geological history over tens of millions of years.

Outstanding Universal Value

Brief synthesis 

The Caves of Aggtelek Karst and Slovak Karst are outstanding for the large number of complex, diverse and relatively intact caves concentrated into a relatively small area. Located at the north-eastern border of Hungary and the south-eastern border of Slovakia, this exceptional group of 712 caves, recorded at time of inscription, lies under a protected area of 56,651 ha and a larger buffer zone. Today more than 1000 caves are known. Karst processes have produced a rich diversity of structures and habitats that are important from a biological, geological and paleontological point of view. While the karst continues to develop in mountains of medium height and under temperate climate conditions, sediments and fossil landforms provide ample evidence of Late Cretaceous and early Tertiary subtropical and tropical climatic conditions as well as periglacial denudational activity during the Quaternary. Shaped over tens of millions of years, the area provides an excellent demonstration of karst formation during both tropical and glacial climates, which is very unusual and probably better documented here than anywhere else in the world.

The most significant cave system in the property is that of Baradla-Domica, a cross-border network richly decorated with stalagmites and stalactites, which is an important active stream cave in the temperate climatic zone and a Ramsar site. Also worth mentioning is the Dobsina Ice Cave, one of the most beautiful in the world. Among the ice-filled caves in the property, the Silica Ice Cave is located at the lowest latitude within the temperate climatic zone. The close proximity of many different types of caves of diverse morphology, including vadose and epiphreatic stream caves, vertical shafts and hypogenic or mixing corrosion caves, as well as important archaeological remains, makes the property an outstanding subterranean museum. Its ecosystems provide habitat for more than 500 troglobiont or troglophil species, including some which are endemic. The interactions between geological karst processes occurring on the surface with those occurring beneath make this area a natural field laboratory.

Criteria (viii): The property Caves of Aggtelek and Slovak Karst, while typical of many karst localities in Europe, is distinctive in its great number (with 712 recorded at time of inscription) of different types of caves found in a concentrated area. Geological processes causing karst features to be buried by sediment and then later reactivated or exhumed provide evidence pertaining to the geologic history of the last tens of millions of years. Relicts of pre-Pleistocene karst (i.e. more than about 2 million years old) are very distinct in the area, and many of them show evidence for sub-tropical and tropical climate forms. These include rounded hills that are relicts of tropical karst later modified by Pleistocene periglacial weathering. This suite of paleokarst features, showing a combination of both tropical and glacial climates, is very unusual and is probably better documented in the Slovak Karst than anywhere else in the world.

Integrity

More than 99% of the Caves of Aggtelek Karst and Slovak Karst is preserved in its original natural condition and is well protected. The other 1% has been substantially modified as “show-caves” to allow human use, which includes 300,000 visitors annually. All of the caves are State-owned and the land above them has protected status. The cave system is exceptionally sensitive to environmental changes, including agricultural pollution, deforestation and soil erosion. Maintenance of the integrity of active geological and hydrological processes (karst formation and the development or evolution of stalagmites and stalactites) requires integrated management of the entire water catchment area.

Protection and management requirements

All of the caves are State-owned and their protection is guaranteed by the Act no. LIII. 1996 on nature protection in Hungary and by the Slovak Constitution no. 90/2001, and the Act of Nature Protection and Landscape no. 543/2002 in Slovakia, irrespective of ownership or protection status of the surface areas. However, in both countries most of the surface area of the property has National Park designation. Aggtelek Karst is administered by the Aggtelek National Park Directorate and the Slovak Karst is managed by the Slovak Karst National Park Directorate (surface) and Slovak Caves Administration (caves). These administrative bodies carry out joint projects including research, protection and monitoring.

The main protection and management requirement is to ensure strict control over surface activities in order to avoid agricultural pollution, deforestation and soil erosion that may affect the quality and quantity of water infiltrating the karst. The property needs to be monitored to ensure that the water quality in the catchment area of the caves is appropriate (including controlling the use of agricultural chemicals) and to prevent large-scale soil erosion and the infiltration of humus and alluvial soil into the caves. This means that the establishment of buffer zones where appropriate, the completion of sewage systems, and the elimination of illegal garbage disposal and building debris in the surrounding settlements are necessary.

Levels of sustainable tourism need to be determined with the involvement of local communities, and monitoring systems need to be completed and implemented. Further research and exploration is needed with regard to the interconnection of the karst cave system. Long-term tasks are related to the need to mitigate impacts caused by climate change, such as extreme changes in water levels. The transboundary property requires a harmonised and coordinated management approach in which the management plan is regularly reviewed. 

Long Description

The Caves of Aggtelek Karst and Slovak Karst lie over a total area of 55,800 ha and topographically comprise limestone plateaus dissected by deep river valleys. The territory is characterized by a fully developed karst landscape, of which dolines are the most typical surface landform. These have developed through solution and are, on average, 100 m wide and 20 m deep. Other surface phenomena include sinkholes and karren fields. This is the most extensively explored karst area in Europe, and a total of 712 caves have so far been identified. Many of the younger caves which have formed at the plateau edges, such as Krasnchorska and Gombasecka, occur on several levels and contain dripstone decorations. The most notable of these is the Baradla-Domica cave system which is 21 km long and connects Hungary with Slovakia. These caves are also noted for having the world's highest stalagmite, aragonite and sinter formations and an ice filled abyss, which considering the territory's height above sea level, is a unique phenomenon for central Europe. All these karst landforms are the result of long-term geomorphologic processes typical of this temperate climatic zone.

Hydrological conditions are characterized by a lack of surface streams, except between mountain basins, and the complex circulation of underground water. The flora is representative of both Pannonian and Carpathian elements. A unique biotope arises where two floral sectors overlap, and consequently many rare endemics can be found throughout the territory. Approximately 70% of the territory consists of deciduous woodland dominated by hornbeam and oak.

The fauna includes wolf, lynx, red deer, roe deer, wild boar, wild cat and badger. Nesting bird species include: rock bunting, black stork, corncrake, imperial eagle, dipper, Ural owl, saker falcon, short-toed eagle, honey buzzard. Of particular scientific interest are the cave and subterranean water fauna. Beetles and other insects are abundant. Cave worms are often found in sand and clay deposits whereas molluscs are associated with underground streams, and crustaceans occur including an endemic species of primitive carb. A total of 21 bat species have been identified in the Slovak Karst.

The caves themselves are of moderate extent and are not as long, deep or decorated as are other world caves. A significant aspect of the area is that it has undergone a great deal of fossilization and later exhumation of landscape features and subsurface groundwater routes. In other words, many karst features, after having formed, were buried by later sediment and then later reactivated or exhumed by erosional removal of the sediment. The resulting karst features contain a great deal of evidence pertaining to the geological history of the last several millions of years. The present karst landscape has been developing intermittently since the late Cretaceous period.

There is one sizeable settlement (Silica) and two hamlets within the Slovak protected area and two villages (Aggtelek and Josvaf with approximately 1,100 inhabitants) inside the Aggtelek National Park's boundaries. There is a serious pollution problem which is contaminating cave waters and threatening the park's ecosystem. This arises from the increased use of pesticides and fertilizers in the surrounding areas and from tourist's vehicles and nearby industry.

Source: http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/725

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Puerto Princesa Subterranean River, Palawan, Philippines

Puerto-Princesa Subterranean River National Park

This park features a spectacular limestone karst landscape with an underground river. One of the river's distinguishing features is that it emerges directly into the sea, and its lower portion is subject to tidal influences. The area also represents a significant habitat for biodiversity conservation. The site contains a full 'mountain-to-sea' ecosystem and has some of the most important forests in Asia.

Outstanding Universal Value

Brief synthesis

Puerto-Princesa Subterranean River National Park encompasses one of the world’s most impressive cave systems, featuring spectacular limestone karst landscapes, pristine natural beauty, and intact old-growth forests and distinctive wildlife. It is located in the south-western part of the Philippine Archipelago on the mid western coast of Palawan, approximately 76 km northwest of Puerto Princesa and 360 km southwest of Manila.

The property, comprising an area of approximately 22,202 ha, contains an 8.2km long underground river. The highlight of this subterranean river system is that it flows directly into the sea, with its brackish lower half subjected to tidal influence, distinguishing it as a significant natural global phenomenon. The river’s cavern presents remarkable, eye catching rock formations. The property contains a full mountain-to-sea ecosystem which provides significant habitat for biodiversity conservation and protects the most intact and noteworthy forests within the Palawan biogeographic province. Holding the distinction of being the first national park devolved and successfully managed by a local government unit, the park’s effective management system is a symbol of commitment by the Filipino people to the protection and conservation of their natural heritage.

Criterion (vii): The Puerto-Princesa Subterranean River National Park features a spectacular limestone or karst landscape. It contains an underground river that flows directly to the sea. The lower half of the river is brackish and subject to ocean tide. The associated tidal influence on the river makes this a significant natural phenomenon. The river’s cavern exhibits dramatic speleothems and several large chambers of as much as 120m wide and 60m high. Its accessibility and navigability up to 4.5km inland allows it to be experienced by the general public, who can view the magnificent rock formations on a river cruise unequalled by any other similar experience elsewhere in the world.

Criterion (x): The property contains globally significant habitat for biodiversity conservation. It includes a full mountain-to-sea ecosystem, protecting the most significant forest area within the Palawan Biogeographic Province. There are eight intact forest formations: forest on ultramafic soil, forest on limestone soil, montane forest, freshwater swamp forest, lowland evergreen tropical rainforest, riverine forest, beach forest, and mangrove forest, included in the property. It contains outstanding biodiversity with the Palawan Moist Forest recognized by the WWF’s Global Report as containing the richest tree flora, with high levels of regional and local endemism and as being the largest and most valuable limestone forest in Asia.

Integrity

The property, including the karst mountain landscapes and the underground river, is in excellent condition. Integrity of the property is also expressed in the complete "mountain-to-the-sea" ecosystem that protects one of the most significant forests in Asia. The uniqueness of the mangrove forests in the Bay along with the flora and fauna they harbour, and the bioecological connection with the caves and surrounding forest is protected within the core area of the property ensuring the local key inter-related and inter-dependant elements of their natural relationships are protected.

The Puerto-Princesa Subterranean River National Park, comprising 22,202 ha and covering three barangays, encompasses the natural values of the property and is of adequate size to protect all the various landforms and the estuarine ecosystem that conveys the Outstanding Universal Value of the property. The boundaries of the property cover the entire watershed of the underground river, thus protecting water quality and quantity and ensuring the long-term viability of the outstanding natural values contained within the property. The biodiversity values of the property are highlighted in Barangay Marufinas which is included in the property along with the adjacent barangays which also contain significant biodiversity values and habitats important to their integrity. Management guidelines are needed to address threats to the property including pollutants impacting on water quality in the underground river. Threats to the property are mainly from adverse activities in adjacent catchment areas, primarily forest clearing and agricultural activities. Tourism activities require careful planning and management to ensure the natural values are not impacted.

Protection and management requirements

Effective site protection is provided at a local rather than a national level through agreements that place legal ownership with the City Government of Puerto Princesa. This arrangement for local ownership ensures the property’s national values are maintained even after changes in local management perspectives. The property is also covered by the National Integrated Protected Area System (NIPAS) Act of 1992 which ensures legal protection and conservation of protected areas in the Philippines. It decrees that all management decisions for the property are made in consultation with the Protected Areas Management Board (PAMB). Multilateral agreement provisions between national government agencies and local stakeholders have been considered throughout the planning and management of the site to ensure protection and conservation of its natural values.

Management of the park is conducted within the boundary as two zones: a core comprising the Park and a surrounding buffer. The Management Plan for the park sets out relevant objectives and programs and provides zoning within the park’s boundaries wherein different management regimes apply. Management of the property is very effective, reflecting strong local political support and enabling the provision of reasonable funding and staffing. Its key directive is to conserve the underground river and the forest ecosystem in their most natural state possible.

Management of the buffer is covered by guidelines that seek to regulate activities that may impact on the property. They also provide for the establishment of sustainable protective measures for agricultural lands within the buffer. Thus, not only conserving the natural resources of the area, but also improving the quality of life of its residents. However, more resources are required for the full implementation of the management plan and guidelines.

Tourism, identified as a potential threat, adversely impacting the natural values of the property, is being addressed through tourism management objectives set out in the Management Plan. But as tourist visits are increasing, more staff training in park planning and management is required to ensure effective management of tourism activities. The property’s tourism program aims to enhance visitor’s experience with nature while protecting the natural values. The threats posed by uncontrolled access from outside developments are being addressed through the implementation of a limit of 600 visitors per day. Wildlife population surveys are conducted annually to monitor the effects of tourism on wildlife. 

Threats from activities such as forest clearing and agriculture also need to be addressed in the Management Plan. Water quality in the underground river, invariably affected by upstream activities in the catchment area, as well as concerns about pollution inputs to the river, need to be addressed in the management guidelines. Regular awareness campaigns at the level of the barangays are needed to ensure natural values of the property are conserved within their jurisdictions and the establishment of an integrated land use plan is required to ensure long term conservation of the natural values of the property.

Long Description

The site of the Puerto-Princesa Subterranean River National Park is located in the Saint Paul Mountain Range. It is north-west of Puerto Princesa, the capital of Palawan Province. The topography varies from flat plains to rolling hinterlands and hills to mountain peaks. Over 90% of the park comprises sharp, karst limestone ridges around Mount St Paul, which is itself part of a series of rounded, limestone peaks aligned on a north-south axis, along the western coast of Palawan.

The focus of the area is a spectacular karst landscape which features both surface karst features (pinnacles, shafts, dolines and limestone cliffs), as well as an extensive underground river system. The subterranean river is 8.2 km long, one of the most unique of its type in the world and includes many speleotherms, several large chambers exist, up to 120 m wide and 60 m high. A distinguishing feature of the river is the fact that it emerges directly into the sea, and that the lower portion of the river is brackish and subject to tidal influences.

The underground river (the Cabayugan River) arises approximately 2 km south-west of Mount Saint Paul at an altitude of 100 m, and flows underground for almost its entire length to an outflow into St Paul's Bay. All rivers and associated tributaries are within the park, which is important in relation to catchments impacts on the water quality of the Cabayugan River.

Approximately two-thirds of the site is forested, dominated by hardwood species. Three forest formations are present: lowland, karst and limestone. The karst forest is restricted to small pockets where soils have developed. In the coastal area, mangroves, mossy forest, seagrass beds and coral reefs are also found.

The faunal diversity in the park is moderate, especially with respect to invertebrates. Endemic mammals include the Palawan tree shrew, Palawan porcupine and Palawan stink badger. Dugong has been recorded in the marine component of the park. Monitor lizard and marine turtles are also present. The Palawan Peacock Pheasant has also been recorded in this site (recognized as an internationally threatened species). The subterranean fauna has not been studied in detail, but comprises fish, prawns, snakes and insects. The tunnel and chambers of the subterranean river are home to abundant populations of swiftlets and bats. Eight species of bat are also found in the cave, and cave swiftlets nest on some of the underground boulder piles. Further studies are required to determine the extent and diversity of the underground fauna.

Source: http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/652

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Jeita Grotto, Nahr al-Kalb Valley, Lebanon

Jeita Grotto, the longest cave in the Middle East, is situated approximately 11 miles (18km) north of Beirut. It consists of two separate, but interconnected, limestone caves, and boasts a length of 5.6 miles (9km). One of the worlds most amazing agglomerations of stalactites and stalagmites, Jeita Grotto is widely considered to be the pride of Lebanon, and featured as a finalist in the New 7 Wonders of Nature competition.

History of the Jeita Grotto

The caves were inhabited by prehistoric man, with evidence suggesting that they were previously used to produce swords. Reverend William Thompson, an American missionary, is credited with the modern discovery of the caves in 1836. Thompson is said to have advanced 50 metres into the caves before firing his gun. The resultant echoes assured him that the caves were to be of significant importance.

Jeita Grotto was not explored further until the 1870’s, when Maxwell and Huxley of the Beirut Water Company carried out extensive expeditions of the caves, reaching 1060 metres inside the grotto.

Lebanese explorers have ventured deeper into the cave since the 1940’s, and have so far exposed 5.6mi (9km) of the Jeita Grotto.

The caves were initially known as the Grottoes of Nahr al-Kalb, after the underground river that runs through the grottoes. Several names were subsequently used, including Djaita, Jehita, and finally, Jeita. Jeita is derived from the town in which the caves entrance is situated, and is loosely translated in Aramaic as the ‘roar’ or ‘noise’ of water.

Lower Grotto

A tour of the lower grotto involves a 1650ft (500m) electric boat trip along a subterranean, black lake. At first, you are met with resonant sounds of rushing water and cool air but, as the boat ventures further into the cave, profound silence is experienced.

The boat tour provides a marvellous sample of the enormous 20,300ft (6200m) lower grotto. The experienced is enhanced by a lighting system which illuminates the columns and structures within.

Upper Grotto

Unlike the lower grotto, the upper grotto can be visited on foot. Access is via a specially conceived 384ft (117m) long concrete walkway. Only 2460ft (750m) of the 6990ft (2130m) cave is accessible for visitors.

The upper grotto features a large concentration of crystallized formations such as stalagmites, stalactites, ponds, mushrooms, columns, curtains and draperies. Three chambers are accessible to visitors. The first is the white chamber, which features the caves most impressive formations. It is home to the worlds longest stalactite, which measures 27ft (8.2m) in length. The second is the red chamber, which is named due to its colour. The red chamber towers to 106m (348ft) high, and is between 98ft (30m) to 160ft (50m) wide. The third chamber is the highest of the three, at a height of 390ft (120m).

Tourist Attractions at Jeita Grotto

Jeita Grotto is one of the main tourist attractions in Lebanon, and as such, it has developed numerous additional features for visitors, including a train, ropeways, miniature zoo and many sculptures. There are also numerous souvenir shops featuring handmade Lebanese products, as well as several restaurants serving traditional Lebanese cuisine.

How To Get To Jeita Grotto

The best way to get to Jeita Grotto is to drive from Beirut. The caves are only 11 miles (18 km) north of Beirut.

Another option would be to take a minibus from Dawra to the Jeita turn-off on the Beirut-Jounieh highway. Here, there are taxis waiting who can take you the remaining 3 miles (5km) to Jeita Grotto. Alternatively, you can take a taxi directly from Beirut.

When To Visit Jeita Grotto

The caves are open for the vast majority of the year, every day of the week apart from Monday. Opening hours vary depending on the time of year, thus, it is advised to check the official website prior to organising your trip. Each year, the caves close for around 4 weeks from late January until early February. During winter, the lower grotto is often closed when the water level becomes too high. The temperature in the caves remains constant at 61 degrees Fahrenheit (16 degrees Celcius) throughout the year.

Where to Stay at Jeita Grotto

Unfortunately, there is nowhere to stay overnight at the caves. However, there is a range of accommodation options available in Beirut.

Source: http://www.beautifulworld.com/asia/lebanon/jeita-grotto

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Siwa Oasis, Egypt

The Siwa Oasis must seem very mysterious to us, even though today it is slowly becoming more of a tourist destination. It has its own airport now, and is sometimes visited more for a few health resorts located there than for its antiquities. Nevertheless, it is certainly off the beaten path, or at least the antiquity path forged by the Nile River, and so it may never become a mainstream tourist destination. It remains one of Egypt's most isolated desert oases, and therefore it has today, as it always has had, a unique and interesting culture, as well as a fascinating history.

Even though the Siwa Oasis may ever receive the millions of tourists that visit Giza or Luxor, it is nevertheless famous for one specific reason, at least to those interested in history. It was here that Alexander the Great traveled to consult the Oracle of Amun, and there to be confirmed as God and King of Egypt.

In fact, the reason why this oracle was so important to him remains somewhat unclear, but go there he did. He continued to correspond with the Oracle of Amun until his death through messengers when he needed answers to important questions.

Most of the antiquities of the Siwa are now gone, many victims to illegal treasure hunters, though others succumbed to the harshness of time combined with the desert. Still, tourism is growing here, and if one is going to take the trouble of going out of their way to see this very different part of Egypt, some background information on the geography, geology, people and customs may be very useful.

The Geology of the Siwa

The Siwa sits in a depression, as do most of the oases, which today is frequently referred to as the Siwa depression. The depression is 82 kilometers (52 miles) long and between 9 and 28 kilometers wide.

This is the most distant Egyptian oasis from the Nile Valley.

The southern parts of the Oasis have succumbed to dunes from the Great Sand Sea, which extends over 500 kilometers north to south and 60 to 80 kilometers east to west. The Siwa sits at the northwest edge of this Great Sand Sea. There are portions of the Siwa Depression that lie as much as 60 meters (192 feet) below sea level, but its average depth is 18 meters below sea level.

Salt is a problem in the Oasis. A number of its fresh water springs run into salt water lakes, making the water mostly useless. To the west is Birket al-Maraqi, which takes up about nine square kilometers, and the largest of the Siwa lakes, Birket Siwa, which covers about 32 square kilometers. To the east, the only remaining lakes are Birket Azmuri, which itself is often dry, and Birket Zaytun, a lake covering some 16 square kilometers. These lakes are so salty that no marine life survives, and there is no tradition of fishing in the oasis. Both the British and, more recently, the Egyptian governments attempted to introduce fish into the lakes in order to create a fishing industry, but still no one fishes. Some of the lakes are so salty that crystals are visible in the water.

Interestingly, one of the lakes, though not necessarily one of the modern ones, for there are others that are now completely dry, is legendary, though the stories varies. Depending on who tells the tale, on an island in this magic lake is buried either the saber and seal of the Prophet Mohammed, or the ring, sword and crown of King Solomon. Another fable records an apparent treasure on an island in Lake Arachie. The French secret agent, Boutin, transported his own collapsible canvas boat through the desert in an attempt to discover it, but the Siwans would not let him search. Later, in the 1920s, Byron Khun de Prorok did make it to the island, but discovered only evidence of human habitation,and no treasure.

These lakes are mostly fed by springs. There is plenty of water in the Oasis, with some 1,000 springs currently in use, but even the spring water has an elevated level of salt and is not good for watering many types of crops. Therefore, the Siwans are limited mostly to growing dates, olives and a few vegetables. The salty soil of the Oasis is called karshif in Arabic, and ererig by the Siwans. It is used by the locals to build their traditional mudbrick houses, which creates another problem. While the salt helps strengthen the walls of the houses, it also is unhealthy, and melts in the rain, making the houses potential death traps. While Siwa does not receive much rain, it doesn't take much to destroy these homes. In 1928, a major storm resulted in the local inhabitants abandoning their ancient town. These days, there are more and more prefab houses in the area. There are also some three thousand mountains and hills in the oasis. Many of them may have no names, but the four most important mountains are Gebel al-Mawta, Gebel al-Dakrur (Daran Breek, Bayle St. John's Edrar Abou Bryk), Gebel Hamra and Gebel Baylin (Adrar al-Milal, Edrar Amelal in Siwan, Mount Khamisa, Gebel Ghaffir). These mountains are riddled with caves, which were sometimes used as tombs, and at times inhabited both in antiquity and during more modern times. Though there is no evidence of it today, Arab historians also tell of great mines in Siwa where iron, lapis lazuli and emeralds were excavated.

Source: http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/siwa1.htm

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Egyptian-Pyramids

Built during a time when Egypt was one of the richest and most powerful civilizations in the world, the pyramids—especially the Great Pyramids of Giza—are some of the most magnificent man-made structures in history. Their massive scale reflects the unique role that the pharaoh, or king, played in ancient Egyptian society. Though pyramids were built from the beginning of the Old Kingdom to the close of the Ptolemaic period in the fourth century A.D., the peak of pyramid building began with the late third dynasty and continued until roughly the sixth (c. 2325 B.C.). More than 4,000 years later, the Egyptian pyramids still retain much of their majesty, providing a glimpse into the country’s rich and glorious past.

THE PHARAOH IN EGYPTIAN SOCIETY

During the third and fourth dynasties of the Old Kingdom, Egypt enjoyed tremendous economic prosperity and stability. Kings held a unique position in Egyptian society. Somewhere in between human and divine, they were believed to have been chosen by the gods to serve as mediators between them and the people on earth. Because of this, it was in everyone’s interest to keep the king’s majesty intact even after his death, when he was believed to become Osiris, god of the dead. The new pharaoh, in turn, became Horus, the falcon-god who served as protector of the sun-god, Ra.

Ancient Egyptians believed that when the king died, part of his spirit (known as “ka”) remained with his body. To properly care for his spirit, the corpse was mummified, and everything the king would need in the afterlife was buried with him, including gold vessels, food, furniture and other offerings. The pyramids became the focus of a cult of the dead king that was supposed to continue well after his death. Their riches would provide not only for him, but also for the relatives, officials and priests who were buried near him.

 

THE EARLY PYRAMIDS

From the beginning of the Dynastic Era (2950 B.C.), royal tombs were carved into rock and covered with flat-roofed rectangular structures known as “mastabas,” which were precursors to the pyramids. The oldest known pyramid in Egypt was built around 2630 B.C. at Saqqara, for the third dynasty’s King Djoser. Known as the Step Pyramid, it began as a traditional mastaba but grew into something much more ambitious. As the story goes, the pyramid’s architect was Imhotep, a priest and healer who some 1,400 years later would be deified as the patron saint of scribes and physicians. Over the course of Djoser’s nearly 20-year reign, pyramid builders assembled six stepped layers of stone (as opposed to mud-brick, like most earlier tombs) that eventually reached a height of 204 feet (62 meters); it was the tallest building of its time. The Step Pyramid was surrounded by a complex of courtyards, temples and shrines, where Djoser would enjoy his afterlife.

After Djoser, the stepped pyramid became the norm for royal burials, although none of those planned by his dynastic successors were completed (probably due to their relatively short reigns). The earliest tomb constructed as a “true” (smooth-sided, not stepped) pyramid was the Red Pyramid at Dahshur, one of three burial structures built for the first king of the fourth dynasty, Sneferu (2613-2589 B.C.) It was named for the color of the limestone blocks used to construct the pyramid’s core.

 

THE GREAT PYRAMIDS OF GIZA

No pyramids are more celebrated than the Great Pyramids of Giza, located on a plateau on the west bank of the Nile River, on the outskirts of modern-day Cairo. The oldest and largest of the three pyramids at Giza, known as the Great Pyramid, is the only surviving structure out of the famed seven wonders of the ancient world. It was built for Khufu (Cheops, in Greek), Sneferu’s successor and the second of the eight kings of the fourth dynasty. Though Khufu reigned for 23 years (2589-2566 B.C.), relatively little is known of his reign beyond the grandeur of his pyramid. The sides of the pyramid’s base average 755.75 feet (230 meters), and its original height was 481.4 feet (147 meters), making it the largest pyramid in the world. Three small pyramids built for Khufu’s queens are lined up next to the Great Pyramid, and a tomb was found nearby containing the empty sarcophagus of his mother, Queen Hetepheres. Like other pyramids, Khufu’s is surrounded by rows of mastabas, where relatives or officials of the king were buried to accompany and support him in the afterlife.

The middle pyramid at Giza was built for Khufu’s son Khafre (2558-2532 B.C). A unique feature built inside Khafre’s pyramid complex was the Great Sphinx, a guardian statue carved in limestone with the head of a man and the body of a lion. It was the largest statue in the ancient world, measuring 240 feet long and 66 feet high. In the 18th dynasty (c. 1500 B.C.) the Great Sphinx would come to be worshiped itself, as the image of a local form of the god Horus. The southernmost pyramid at Giza was built for Khafre’s son Menkaure (2532-2503 B.C.). It is the shortest of the three pyramids (218 feet) and is a precursor of the smaller pyramids that would be constructed during the fifth and sixth dynasties.

Approximately 2.3 million blocks of stone (averaging about 2.5 tons each) had to be cut, transported and assembled to build Khufu’s Great Pyramid. The ancient Greek historian Herodotus wrote that it took 20 years to build and required the labor of 100,000 men, but later archaeological evidence suggests that the workforce might actually have been around 20,000. Though some popular versions of history held that the pyramids were built by slaves or foreigners forced into labor, skeletons excavated from the area show that the workers were probably native Egyptian agricultural laborers who worked on the pyramids during the time of year when the Nile River flooded much of the land nearby.

 

THE END OF THE PYRAMID ERA

Pyramids continued to be built throughout the fifth and sixth dynasties, but the general quality and scale of their construction declined over this period, along with the power and wealth of the kings themselves. In the later Old Kingdom pyramids, beginning with that of King Unas (2375-2345 B.C), pyramid builders began to inscribe written accounts of events in the king’s reign on the walls of the burial chamber and the rest of the pyramid’s interior. Known as pyramid texts, these are the earliest significant religious compositions known from ancient Egypt.

The last of the great pyramid builders was Pepy II (2278-2184 B.C.), the second king of the sixth dynasty, who came to power as a young boy and ruled for 94 years. By the time of his rule, Old Kingdom prosperity was dwindling, and the pharaoh had lost some of his quasi-divine status as the power of non-royal administrative officials grew. Pepy II’s pyramid, built at Saqqara and completed some 30 years into his reign, was much shorter (172 feet) than others of the Old Kingdom. With Pepy’s death, the kingdom and strong central government virtually collapsed, and Egypt entered a turbulent phase known as the First Intermediate Period. Later kings, of the 12th dynasty, would return to pyramid building during the so-called Middle Kingdom phase, but it was never on the same scale as the Great Pyramids.

 

THE PYRAMIDS TODAY

Tomb robbers and other vandals in both ancient and modern times removed most of the bodies and funeral goods from Egypt’s pyramids and plundered their exteriors as well. Stripped of most of their smooth white limestone coverings, the Great Pyramids no longer reach their original heights; Khufu’s, for example, measures only 451 feet high. Nonetheless, millions of people continue to visit the pyramids each year, drawn by their towering grandeur and the enduring allure of Egypt’s rich and glorious past.

Source: http://www.history.com/topics/ancient-history/the-egyptian-pyramids

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SihanoukVille-Cambodia: History and Legend

History

As you may notice in your travels, Sihanoukville has a different look and feel than most Cambodian towns. There is no Colonial architecture or ancient pagodas. Constructed as a port city in the late 1950s, the town is much newer, more urban and cosmopolitan than most Cambodian provincial cities. The history of Sihanoukville goes back only as far as 1955 when the area was known as Kampong Som. In August of that year, a French/Cambodian construction team cut a base camp into the unoccupied jungle in the area that is now known as ‘Hawaii Beach.’ They laid the groundwork for the construction of the new Port of Kampong Som. 

Prior to 1954, Indochina (Laos, Cambodia and Vietnam) was a single political unit under French jurisdiction. During this period, Cambodia maintained international sea trade via the Mekong River. But the dissolution of French Indochina in 1954 meant the Mekong delta reverted to the control of Vietnam. Seeking unfettered access to the ocean, plans were made to construct a new ocean port. Kampong Som was selected for water depth and ease of access.
Construction of the port and Route 4 (the road to Phnom Penh) was carried out from 1955-1960. Most of the funds for construction of the port came from France, and the road was financed primarily by the USA. The town began as housing for construction workers in the area just southeast of the current port. Upon completion, the town was renamed Sihanoukville in honor of the King.

Sihanoukville’s heyday came in the 1960s. Although Kep was more popular as a holiday destination, the commercial success of the port led to a flurry of construction and expansion including the construction of the Independence Hotel, the original Angkor Brewery (closed in 1975 and reopened in 1991), a Truck & Tractor Plant, Wat Chotynieng (aka Wat Leu), St Michael's Catholic Church (constructed in 1960, closed in 1975 and reopened in 1993), dozens of villas on Ochheuteal Beach (destroyed in the 1980s) and other structures. There was also a second phase of port construction, which began in 1965 and halted with the Lon Nol coup d'etat of 1970.Sihanoukville entered the history of the American/ Vietnamese conflict when, during the late 1960’s and early 70’s, it served as a transit point for weapons bound for both sides in Vietnam. The town’s most direct involvement came on May 13, 1975 when the Khmer Rouge captured the S.S. Mayaguez, a U.S. container ship. Attempting to release the ship and its crew, the U.S. engaged KR forces at Koh Tang, an island near Sihanoukville. They met fierce resistance and suffered heavy losses. American bombers struck the naval base at Ream (north of Sihanoukville), warehouses at the Port, the airfield, the train yard and the oil refinery north of town. The ship and its crew were released May 15, during the battle. This engagement is considered to be, from the American perspective, the last battle of the Vietnam War.

During the UN sponsored elections in 1992 and 1993, Sihanoukville played host to the Australian, Belgian and French contingents of UNTAC (United Nations Transitional Authority in Cambodia). After the elections, American aid paid to repair National Route 4 between Sihanoukville and Phnom Penh (1994-95) and foreign tourists began trickling into Sihanoukville for the first time in two decades. But tourism came to an abrupt halt with the tragic 1994 Khmer Rouge murders of 3 backpackers taken from a train on the way to Sihanoukville, and of 3 expatriates taken from a taxi on Route 4. The road was finally secured and regularly scheduled buses started to ply the route between Sihanoukville and Phnom Penh in 1996. Tourism to Sihanoukville increased steadily but slowly until the early 2000s, when the increase became significantly more rapid.

History Picture #1 - Kampong Som base camp, 1955

History Picture #2 - Kampong Som during port construction, August 1957

History Picture #3 - US Defense Department map of oil refinery bombed in Mayaguez incident. May, 1975

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Legend

At the crest of the Pich Nil Pass on Route 4 dozens of spirit houses line the road. Many of the houses are maintained for Ya-Mao, the deity who oversees the southern coastal region of Cambodia. When traveling Rte 4 people often display bananas on their dashboard and offer the the bananas, incense and a little money to Ya-Mao at Pich Nil. The offerings are usually made with the prayer for safe travels. There seem to be no two identical tellings of the legend. In one telling, Ya-Mao was the wife of a village chief in the area of Ream.  

Her husband was forced by work to spend months away from her in Koh Kong. One rainy season she grew lonely for him and took a Koh Kong bound boat to meet him. On the way the boat was swept away in a storm, drowning everybody, including Ya-Mao. But her spirit was powerful and through dreams and spirit possessions she made it known that she was overseeing the southern coast and protecting the fishermen and villagers. She required only their good behavior and occasionalofferings of phallic symbols.

The main spirit house at Pich Nil is adorned with phallic symbols but why Ya-Mao makes this demand is a matter of debate. Some people say that she was seeking this in her ill-fated trip and so still desires it. Others say that she is angry at men because she died trying to get to her husband and wants a symbol of a severed phallus. Sidestepping the debate some more conservative members of the community think that Ya-Mao is now too old for phallic symbols and requires only bananas.

 

Phallic symbol offerings can still be seen on the beaches near fishing villages, usually in the form of a stick and incense stuck in the sand under a tree. Wat Khrom in Sihanoukville maintains a small but significant temple for Ya-Mao.

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Preah Vihear in Cambodia

Introduction

Preah Vihear is quite a big northern province of Cambodia. Its capital is called Phnom Tbeng Meanchey. The province itself is named after the temple of Prasat Preah Vihear, what is definitely the hotspot of this province. Much of the province is extremely remote and strongly forested. Unfortunately do large logging companies reduce the natural landscape by carving huge tracts of pristine tropical hardwoods out of the locations. It is also one of the least populated provinces in the Kingdom of Cambodia. This tranquil site is popular for the Preah Vihear temple, standing in the vicinity of the borderline between Thailand and Cambodia. 

The province has one of the worst infrastructures in the country there are even no proper Major Roads in existence. Going around this province is not that easy if you're used to proper roads and usual transportation possibilities, as there are only a few pick-ups or some money-hunting moto drivers to take you where you would like to go.

Whatsoever the province has a lot to offer for those, who are interested in ancient temple structures and remote villages without touristy influence. Here in Preah Vihear you may find three of the most impressive legacies from the Angkorian era: the mountain temple of Prasat Preah Vihear, the 10th-century capital of Koh Ker and the mighty Preak Khan. 

Koh Ker is nowadays easily accessible from Siem Reap via Beng Mealea, but the other two still remain difficult to visit, requiring long and tough overland journeys and a distinct possibility to spend a night in the jungle. During the wet season these places are more or less unreachable. But there are governmental plans to develop the region for a smooth but constant tourism, building roads and improving infrastructure.

The provincial capital Tbeng Meanchey is due to the state of the infrastructure and it's geographical location not visited by a lot of foreigners. Most of them don't make it here worrying about the street conditions and the backcountry feeling of no fast supply in need. The city is sprawling and dusty and consists of little more than two small major dirt roads form South to North. There is nothing interesting in town or to do, so it has necessarily become more a stopover on the way to Koh Ker and Preah Khan.

Geography

Preah Vihear province is 13,788 square kilometres big. It's located in the North of the country and shares its international border to the North with Thailand and Laos, its provincial borders to the East with Stueng Treng, to the West with Oddar Meanchey and Siem Reap and to the South with Kompong Thom. The province is blessed with endless natural treasure. With its acres of dense, hilly forests and scrub green vegetation, Preah Vihear is indeed an ideal getaway destination in the lap of nature. The breathtaking views over the Dangkrek Mountains and lush jungle from Preah Vihear temples are famous.

Climate

The country has a tropical climate - warm and humid. In the monsoon season, abundant rain allows for the cultivation of a wide variety of crops. This year-round tropical climate makes Cambodia ideal for developing tourism. Travellers need not to fear natural disasters such as erupting volcanoes or earthquakes, and the country is not directly affected by tropical storms.

Climate: Cambodia can be visited throughout the year. However, those plans to travel extensively by road should be avoided the last two months of the rainy season when some countryside roads may be impassable. The average temperature is about 27 degrees Celsius; the minimum temperature is about 16 degrees. December and January are the coolest months, whereas the hottest is April.

General information about the provincial climate:

- Cool season: November- March (22-28c)
- Hot season: March- May (27c -35c)
- Rainy season: May - October (24-32c, with humidity up to 90%.)

Population

The current population in this province is about 160,551 people or 1.1% of the country's total population (14,363,519 person in Cambodia, 2007, provincial government data), with 81,318 male and 78,233 female. The population density is therefore 11.64 people per square kilometre.

Economy

The province's economy is 85% based on farming and the remaining other 15% are based on fishing and illegal trading with pristine hardwoods. Because of its border with Thailand, the international trade is also increasing slightly and becoming another important sector of the province's economy. There is several developing plans from province based NGO's, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs from Thailand and Cambodian government itself. The economy and infrastructure of the province was also sustainably destructed during the Khmer Rouge stand and needs therefore a whole new stabile backbone.

How to Get there

General Information (Share taxi/Pick-up/Motorbike):

To get into this remote province you have two possibilities, one is a packed laterite Major Road from Siem Reap via Anlong Veng, with a distance of over 200 km (completed in 2003).

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The other access to Preah Vihear is from Kampong Thom via NH 64, which is about 155km South of Tbeng Meanchey. The last one is probably the easiest and fastest way to go to Tbeng Meanchey. Pick-ups go almost daily in the morning and noon to the provincial capital of Preah Vihear from Kampong Thom market ($2-4 depending if you're inside or on the back).

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The comfortable share taxi is the other and faster option for $5-7. The road leading there is in horrendous condition as the logging freeze means no one has done any maintenance for a couple of years. The last 30km to Tbeng Meanchey climb some hills, which may get very nasty during the wet season with small creeks to minor rivers. You can also reach the place on a two to three days motorbike trip from Kompong Thom. Be aware of the road conditions and try to judge your personal experience on dusty, bumpy roads in the jungle.

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A new other road has been constructed linking Siem Reap to Koh Ker (attraction side). From there, it's an ardous day ride on badly worn out dirt and sand tracks to Preah Vihear (famous temples).

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Motorbike Info (Khampong Thom Preah Vihear):
Kompong Thom is the starting point for a real adventurous tour to the seldom-visited jungle plains of northern Cambodia. This 2-3 days motorbike ride to Preah Vihear is offered by some of the moto-taxi drivers, who will propose it to you once they spot you getting off the bus ($30-50).

With you sitting on the back of the bike, your driver will take you through peaceful villages and rice paddies, passing by friendly locals, spending a night with a local family and visiting the temples of Preah Khan Kompong Thom and Koh Ker on your way up. A part of the journey leads you along an old Angkorian road and over its ancient bridges. The ride itself is hardship, skidding over sticks and stones, through sand oceans and bamboo forests, sometimes fording small rivers. From Preah Vihear, you will head to Siem Reap via Anlong Veng, the place where Pol Pot is said to have died. It's a worth a ride, but put your motorbike skills on question before you go for it.

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Note!
Land mines still remain a real danger in Preah Vihear although the temples itself and the access paths have been painstakingly cleared. Stay on the beaten trek, don't venture into any vegetation that has not been cleared recently, and heed the red warning signs, painted rocks and strings marking the limits of the demined area.

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Where to Eat

General Information: 
With exception of the small market and a couple of food stalls on the street, there are only a couple of eateries in town. In front of the taxi station you may find a couple of small restaurants offering noodle and rice dishes and fresh coffee.

Dara Reas Restaurant: 
This place is located 200m west from the roundabout and 1km south from the market. It is a larger garden restaurant that's popular with well-to-do locals. It offers good grub concerning the so to-say end of the world and some nice pavilion for small groups. Typical Khmer food.

Mlop Dong Restaurant: 
This restaurant comes with reasonable food, and the range of dishes is also heartening for this part of the world. It is quite a popular place for expats living in town, and after dinner this is about the closest thing to a pub this town boasts.

Where to Stay

Mlop Trosek Guesthouse: (tel: 012/952035) 
A favourite place in this small town, with a large, green garden and clean rooms with attached bathroom and plenty of secure parking if you come with a motorbike. The newly refurnished rooms are lighter and brighter than those near the front and also have genuine lino floors. Prices are around US$4-5.

Prom Tep Guesthouse: (tel: 012/ 964645) 
Located north from the market than the first block turning east, this is the closest thing to a hotel in this part of Preah Vihear. The rooms are really spacious and comfortable with standard satellite TV, attached Western bathroom and air-con. The prices range from US$6-12.

27 May Guesthouse: (tel: 011/905472) 

This place is near the market situated. One of the very budget accommodations in town, with quite clean rooms including a bath and some of the rooms come with air-con. There are also very small rooms for $1.5 with share bathroom. The only pity is, that it is near the market, so it could get a little noisy in the morning. The rooms come for US$1.5-5.

Phnom Meas: (tel: 012/632017) 
This small guesthouse is located east of the taxi station. It features small rooms with bath and TV and bigger rooms with no windows. The price is around $4-8.

Shopping

As it is quite common in Cambodia even small cities, such as Tbeng Meanchey have at least one market. You may also find a small market in Tbeng Meanchey centre, which is a busy area with local shops dealing the local daily consumer products, like fish, fruits, vegetables, meats and packed products (a lot from Thailand). Most of the food and drink shops are surrounding the market.

Source: http://www.tourismcambodia.com/travelguides/provinces/preah-vihear

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